A new architectural language – African Modernism – emerged in the mid-20th century as a bold, progressive and distinctly local manifestation of new-found independence and national identity. Here’s the story of its rise, fall – and resurgence.
WORDS Juliet Kavishe PHOTOS SUPPLIED
It may have often been overlooked in global discussions of architectural Modernism, but African Modernism represents a fascinating intersection of international design principles with indigenous sensibilities and post-colonial aspirations.
Post-independence nation-building
For newly independent African nations, architecture became a powerful tool of nation-building. Leaders such as Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah, Senegal’s Léopold Sédar Senghor and Tanzania’s Julius Nyerere understood that the built environment could embody their political vision and symbolise a break from the colonial past. Nkrumah, for example, believed in a “New Africa”, free from imperialism, drawing strength from both modern science and traditional African beliefs. He envisioned a modernised Africa, but one that preserved its cultural identity, and he captured the dual ambition of this architectural movement – to be both resolutely forward-looking and authentically African.
Ghana gained independence in 1957, and the government immediately commissioned modern civic buildings, universities and monuments that would reflect the young nation’s aspirations. With its clean lines and monumental presence, the Independence Arch in Accra exemplified the way in which modernist architecture could symbolise national pride and freedom. This period represented both opportunity and challenge: reclaiming cultural narratives through the built environment while navigating the complex inheritance of colonial design practices. The tension between adopting international Modernism and expressing indigenous values characterised much of the architectural production of this era.
The key architects and visionaries
A diverse group of architects, African and international, shaped its development, sharing a vision for architecture that responded to local conditions while embracing modern principles. Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew were British architects who worked extensively in West Africa, developing an approach that adapted modernist principles to tropical climates. Their designs for the University of Ibadan in Nigeria featured brise-soleil (sun-breakers), cross-ventilation, and elevated structures that responded intelligently to the hot, humid climate.
Demas Nwoko of Nigeria, recipient of the 2023 Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement at the Biennale Architettura, and Pierre Goudiaby Atepa of Senegal represent African architects who successfully blended modernist principles with indigenous spatial concepts and decorative elements. Nwoko’s first commission, a chapel for the Dominican Institute in Ibadan, Nigeria, incorporates traditional Yoruba architectural elements within a modern framework.
It was made of locally sourced materials, and its roof corner pinnacles referenced Hausa architecture, which embodies the notion of “respectable design” that recognises and honours indigenous knowledge systems. These architects constantly engaged in “design sovereignty” – reclaiming the right to determine how their built environments would represent their cultural values and social needs, rather than those imposed during colonisation.
Pan-African ideals and regional adaptations
The Pan-African movement, emphasising continental unity, profoundly influenced African architectural expression. Buildings became vessels for expressing cultural identity and political ideology. Yet this vision manifested differently across regions. In East Africa, particularly in Tanzania under Nyerere’s leadership, modernist buildings often incorporated socialist principles, with an emphasis on public space and community facilities. In West Africa, especially in Senegal under Senghor, there was a greater emphasis on what Senghor called “Négritude” – the celebration of African cultural values. The regional adaptations created a rich tapestry of modernist expression across the continent. The FIDAK Exhibition Center in Dakar (now the Centre International du Commerce Extérieur du Sénégal) exemplifies the Senegalese approach, with its monumental form including references to traditional African sculpture.
These variations are not seen as deviations from a purist Modernism, but as necessary adaptations reflecting distinct cultural contexts and needs. Pluriversality recognises that design solutions must emerge from multiple cultural centres rather than a single dominant tradition – precisely what the regional modernisms accomplished.
The landmark projects
Certain buildings stand as iconic examples of African Modernism’s ambition and creative vision. The National Theatre of Ghana in Accra, designed by Chinese architects as a gift from China, features a dramatic concrete “canopy” inspired by traditional African headwear.
The La Pyramide building in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, designed by Italian architect Rinaldo Olivieri, rises as a stepped ziggurat, its unusual form effectively controlling the climate while creating a distinctive landmark; and Moshe Mayer’s design of the Hotel Ivoire (also in Abidjan) represents luxury and cosmopolitanism with its sweeping forms and innovative construction. In Uganda, the Makerere University campus showcases how modernist principles were adapted to create environments that are conducive to education in a tropical setting. These landmark projects reveal design’s “ontological politics” – how architectural choices reflect the fundamental questions about whose ways of being and knowing are valued. Although these buildings employed international modernist techniques, many sought to centre African ontologies through spatial arrangements and symbolic forms.
Materiality and construction innovations
African Modernism is distinguished by its innovative approach to materials and climate response. Concrete – versatile, durable and relatively inexpensive – became the signature material, often left exposed to express a structural honesty that’s in alignment with modernist principles.
Yet the movement was not defined by concrete alone. Architects experimented with a variety of local materials and construction techniques, from laterite (iron-rich soil) in Mali to volcanic stone in Rwanda. Climate-responsive elements such as deep overhangs, perforated screens, courtyards and elevated structures created comfortable interiors while minimising energy consumption.
The CNPS (Caisse Nationale de Prévoyance Sociale) Tower in Yaoundé, Cameroon, exemplifies this materiality: its expressed concrete frame and integrated sun-shading devices give the facade depth and character while responding to local climate conditions, thus respecting the relationship between people, their natural environment and the designed world.
Criticism and re-evaluation
Elitist, expensive and disconnected from everyday life, is how critics often described African Modernism. Some saw the buildings as a foreign aesthetic, representing continued cultural dependence even after political independence. However, contemporary scholars have begun to re-evaluate this architectural heritage through a lens that acknowledges its achievements and contradictions, recognising its unique synthesis of international Modernism with local sensibilities. What was once dismissed as derivative is now studied as an essential chapter in global architectural history that offers valuable lessons in climate adaptation and cultural expression.
Decline, legacy – and resurgence
By the 1980s, economic challenges, changing political circumstances and the global shift towards Postmodernism led to a decline in African modernist construction. Many iconic buildings fell into disrepair because of maintenance challenges and changing priorities. Yet the legacy of African Modernism remains powerful. These buildings continue to shape urban landscapes across the continent, serving as reminders of the optimism and ambition of the independence era. Their innovative approaches to climate, materials and cultural identity still influence contemporary African architecture.
Recent years have seen growing appreciation for African modernist architecture, and projects such as Manuel Herz’s African Modernism: The Architecture of Independence (2015) are working to catalogue and preserve this heritage. Contemporary African architects are revisiting modernist principles, finding renewed relevance in their climate, identity and community. Firms like Mariam Issoufou Architects, founded by Mariam Kamara in Niger, demonstrate how modernist sensibilities can be reinterpreted through respectful design practices to address contemporary challenges of sustainability and local relevance.
As Africa continues to urbanise rapidly, the lessons of African Modernism – its climatic wisdom, cultural sensitivity and bold vision – offer guidance for globally connected architecture that’s deeply rooted in place. These buildings and their contemporary interpretations represent ongoing efforts to decolonise design by creating built environments that truly reflect African values, needs and aspirations.
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